• Sinus tachycardia with two premature supraventricular complexes (“PSVC”) – these are probably atrial in origin as they are both preceded by abnormal P waves (hidden within the preceding T-waves)
• Overall ventricular rate = 108 bpm
• Left axis deviation
• PR interval normal (~160ms)
• Broad QRS (~120ms) secondary to non-specific interventricular conduction delay (not characteristic of LBBB or RBBB); the QRS appears wider than it actually is in some leads due to the upsloping ST segments
• Widespread ST depression in I, II, aVF and V2-6 with T-wave inversion in aVL
• Marked ST elevation in aVR (> 3mm at the J-point)
• In comparison, there is minimal ST elevation in V1 (i.e. STE in aVR > V1)

In a patient presenting with ischaemic chest pain, the combination of:

• Widespread ST depression
• ST elevation in aVR ≥ 1mm
• ST elevation in aVR ≥ V1

Is strongly suggestive of left main coronary artery (LMCA) occlusion or severe multi-vessel disease.

ST elevation in aVR: Left Main Coronary Artery Occlusion?

This ECG demonstrates the classical pattern of LMCA occlusion:

• Widespread horizontal ST depression, most prominent in leads I, II and V4-6
• ST elevation in aVR ≥ 1mm
• ST elevation in aVR ≥ V1

ST elevation in aVR is not entirely specific to LMCA occlusion. It may also be seen with:

• Proximal left anterior descending artery (LAD) occlusion
• Severe triple-vessel disease (3VD)

Mechanism of STE in aVR

• Lead aVR is electrically opposite to the left-sided leads I, II, aVL and V4-6; therefore ST depression in these leads will produce reciprocal ST elevation in aVR.
• Lead aVR also directly records electrical activity from the right upper portion of the heart, including the right ventricular outflow tract and the basal portion of the interventricular septum; infarction in this area could theoretically produce ST elevation in aVR.

ST elevation is aVR is thought to result from two possible mechanisms:

• Diffuse subendocardial ischaemia (producing reciprocal change in aVR)
• Transmural ischaemia / infarction of the basal interventricular septum (e.g. due to a proximal occlusion within the left coronary system)

NB. The basal septum is supplied by the first septal perforator artery (a very proximal branch of the LAD), so ischaemia/infarction of the basal septum would imply involvement of the proximal LAD or LMCA.

Predictive Value of STE in aVR

In the context of widespread ST depression + symptoms of myocardial ischaemia:

• STE in aVR ≥ 1mm indicates proximal LAD / LMCA occlusion or severe 3VD
• STE in aVR ≥ 1mm predicts the need for CABG
• STE in aVR ≥ V1 differentiates LMCA from proximal LAD occlusion
• Absence of ST elevation in aVR almost entirely excludes a significant LMCA lesion

In the context of anterior STEMI:

• STE in aVR ≥ 1mm is highly specific for LAD occlusion proximal to the first septal branch

In patients undergoing exercise stress testing:

• STE of ≥ 1mm in aVR during exercise stress testing predicts LMCA or ostial LAD stenosis

Magnitude of ST elevation in aVR is correlated with mortality in patients with acute coronary syndromes:

• STE in aVR ≥ 0.5mm was associated with a 4-fold increase in mortality
• STE in aVR ≥ 1mm was associated with a 6- to 7-fold increase in mortality
• STE in aVR ≥ 1.5mm has been associated with mortalities ranging from 20-75%

A Brief Review of the Literature

Over the past 18 years, multiple studies have examined the utility of ST elevation in aVR for predicting severe coronary artery disease (proximal LAD/LMCA/3VD) and mortality in patients with acute coronary syndromes and those undergoing exercise stress testing. Some of the important studies are summarised below…

Gorgels et al. (1993)

Population:

• 113 patients with unstable angina, including 20 patients with LMCA stenosis and 24 patients with 3VD.

Findings:

• Patients with LMCA or 3VD frequently demonstrated ST-segment depression in multiple leads (typically I, II and V4-V6) plus ST-segment elevation in lead aVR during attacks of angina.

Engelen et al. (1999)

Population:

• 100 patients with anterior STEMI.

Findings:

• STE in aVR of any magnitude was 43% sensitive and 95% specific for LAD occlusion proximal to the first septal branch.

Yamaji et al. (2001)

Population:

• 16 patients with acute LMCA occlusion, 46 patients with acute LAD occlusion and 24 patients with acute RCA occlusion.

Findings:

• STE in aVR (≥ 0.5mm) occurred with a significantly higher incidence in the LMCA group (88%) than in the LAD (43%) or RCA (8%) groups.
• Magnitude of STE in aVR was significantly greater in the LMCA group (1.6 ± 1.3 mm) than the LAD group (0.4 ± 1.0 mm).
• In contrast, magnitude of STE in V1 was less in the LMCA group (0.0 ± 2.1 mm) than in the LAD group (1.4 ± 1.1 mm).
• STE in aVR ≥ V1 distinguished the LMCA group from the LAD group with 81% sensitivity, 80% specificity and 81% accuracy.

Barrabes et al. (2003) 

Population:

• 775 patients with first presentation of acute NSTEMI.

Findings:

• Two-thirds of patients with STE in aVR ≥ 1 mm had either LMCA occlusion or severe 3VD.
• Degree of STE in aVR was an independent predictor of mortality: STE of ≥ 1 mm was associated with a six- to seven-fold increase in in-hospital mortality (odds ratio of death = 6.6).
• Magnitude of STE in aVR was also closely associated with rates of recurrent ischemic events and heart failure.
• STE in aVR predicted the need for CABG – coronary grafting was required in 22% of patients with aVR STE > 1mm compared to 5% of those without.

Rostoff et al. (2005)

Population:

• 150 patients with acute coronary syndromes – 46 with LMCA obstruction, 104 with occlusion of a different vessel.

Findings:

• STE in aVR was twice as common in patients with LMCA occlusion as those without (69.6% vs 34.6%).

Kosuge et al. (2005) 

Population:

• 310 patients with non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndromes.

Findings:

• STE in aVR  ≥ 0.5 mm was the strongest predictor of LMCA or 3VD (78% sensitivity, 86% specificity, 57% PPV and 95% NPV).
• STE in aVR was superior to the presence of ST depression in other leads for predicting LMCA/3VD.

Aygul et al. (2008)

Population:

• 950 patients with STEMI (any type).

Findings:

• STE in aVR ≥ 0.5 mm predicted proximal LAD or LMCA occlusion (with 50% sensitivity, 91% specificity, 55% PPV, 89% NPV).
• STE in aVR ≥ 0.5 mm was also an independent predictor of mortality (in-hospital mortality was 19% in those with ≥ 0.5 mm STE in aVR compared to only 5% in those without).
• Patients with STE in aVR also had higher heart rates, lower systolic BPs, lower ejection fractions and worse Killip class at the time of admission.

Wong et al. (2011)

Population:

• 15, 315 patients with STEMI enrolled in the HERO-2 trial (heparin vs bivalirudin for acute MI).

Findings:

• STE ≥1.5 mm in aVR was associated with a two-fold increase in 30-day mortality for both inferior and anterior STEMI, compared to the baseline mortality rate of 10.8%.

Population:

• 454 patients undergoing both exercise stress testing (standard Bruce protocol) and cardiac catheterization within 6 months, including 75 patients with LMCA or ostial LAD stenosis.

Findings:

• STE of ≥ 1mm in aVR during stress testing predicted LMCA or ostial LAD stenosis with sensitivity 75%, specificity 81% and overall accuracy 80%.

Kosuge et al. (2011)

Population:

• 572 patients with acute NSTEMI.

Findings:

• Degree of STE in aVR was the strongest independent predictor of severe LMCA occlusion / 3VD requiring CABG (odds ratio 29.1), followed by positive troponin T level (odds ratio 1.27).
• STE ≥ 1.0 mm in aVR identified severe LMCA occlusion /3VD with 80% sensitivity, 93% specificity, 56% PPV, and 98% NPV.

More ECG Examples

LMCA occlusion

Another typical example of LMCA occlusion:

• Widespread ST depression, most prominent in the lateral leads (V4-6, I, aVL)
• ST elevation > 1mm in aVR
• ST elevation in aVR ≥ V1

Proximal LAD occlusion

This ECG shows:

• ST elevation in aVR and V1 of similar magnitude.
• Widespread ST depression (V3-6, I, II, III, aVF)

This patient had a severe ostial LAD thrombus that was close to the left main (This ECG is reproduced from Dr Smith’s ECG Blog – click here to see the ECG in its original context).

Severe Multi-Vessel Disease

This ECG shows:

• ST elevation in aVR and V1, of similar magnitude
• ST depression in multiple leads (V5-6, I, II, aVL, aVF)
• Evidence of anteroseptal STEMI – ST elevation with Q wave formation in V1-3

It would be reasonable to suspect a proximal LAD occlusion based on this ECG. However, this patient actually had severe multi-vessel disease. Angiography demonstrated a chronic total occlusion of his circumflex artery, with critical stenoses of his proximal LAD, RCA and ramus intermedius. Surprisingly, in this case the culprit vessel was thought to be the RCA, which had been collateralising his chronically occluded circumflex. 

Implications for therapy in acute coronary syndromes

Given the ability of STE in aVR to predict critical coronary lesions and death, this ECG pattern is increasingly being recognised as a “STEMI equivalent” that requires emergent reperfusion therapy to prevent cardiogenic shock and death.

Furthermore, the presence or absence of STE in aVR may potentially inform the decision to give thienopyridine platelet inhibitors (e.g. clopidogrel, prasugrel) during an acute coronary syndrome:

• Clopidogrel treatment ≤ 7 days before CABG is associated with an increase in major bleeding, haemorrhage-related complications, and transfusion requirements.
• Prasugrel is associated with even more bleeding than clopidogrel.
• If urgent CABG (within 7 days) is likely, then there is an argument for omitting thienopyridines during the initial management of an acute coronary syndrome (or at least using clopidogrel instead of prasugrel).

In the recent study by Kosuge et al. (2011)

• STE in aVR ≥ 1 mm was a strong predictor of severe LMCA / 3VD requiring CABG.
• Conversely, patients with < 1mm ST elevation in aVR had a negligible risk of severe LMCA / 3VD requiring CABG.

Based on this data:

• Patients with < 1mm STE in aVR may safely receive clopidogrel/prasugrel during the initial treatment of their ACS as they are unlikely to proceed to urgent CABG.
• Patients with ≥ 1 mm STE in aVR may potentially require early CABG; therefore these patients should ideally be discussed with the interventional cardiologist (± cardiac surgeon) before thienopyridines are given.

• There was some initial resistance to urgent angiography as the junior cardiology registrar failed to appreciate the significance of the ECG changes.
• Luckily for the patient, the astute Emergency Physician persisted…
• Shortly after showing the ECG to his boss, a rather panicky cardiology registrar ran into ED and whisked the patient off to the cath lab!
• Coronary angiogram showed a complete ostial occlusion of the LMCA, with acute thrombus. The remainder of the coronary arteries were normal, apart from some minor irregularities in the RCA.
• The patient stabilised after PCI to the LMCA.
• An intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP) was inserted at the time of angiography and remained in situ for two days while the patient recovered from his cardiogenic shock.
• Troponin peaked at 220 μg/L.
• The patient made a good recovery – echocardiography performed six days later showed normal LV size with only mild segmental systolic dysfunction and an ejection fraction of 48%.
• He was transferred to a private hospital for ongoing management, so I am not sure whether he ultimately required CABG.

• Overall pass rate for this question was 32/55 (58.2%).
• ECG showed widespread T wave inversion, concave up ST elevation and PR depression inviting in this clinical context a discussion re a number of differentials including pericarditis.
• This was viewed as a difficult but relevant ECG which was satisfactorily interpreted by most candidates.
• The discussion re echocardiography was generally superficial and was the major reason for poor scores.

I was looking at FACEM 2007.1 ECG quiz and it appears that the ECG has a limb lead mixup…I’m having trouble conceiving of pericarditis with the T-waves so deeply inverted in III/aVF.

I believe the following lead configuration may have been used (with the limb leads on the body): – RA: Green – LA: White – RL: Red – LL: Black

It would preserve P-waves in II and aVF and invert T’s in II/III/aVF. Leads I/aVR/aVL would remain relatively undisturbed. Does that seem feasible?

Christopher Watford – Paramedic

Sure looks like it could be LA/LL limb lead reversal. The large P wave and QRS voltage in I  and smaller QRS voltage in aVF makes this quite likely (II becomes I and aVF becomes aVL).

Usual QRS axis in a normal EKG is about 60, but LA/LL limb lead reversal is commonly missed because P wave axis and QRS axis still fall within normal range when it occurs.

I must say, the PR segment depression in I (actually II) and elevation in R, paired with the lower precordial voltage makes pericarditis an likely culprit, IMO (along with a waywardly-trained nurse). 

Dr Westby G. Fisher  MD

Hey, nice ECG and nice example of LL reversal. It is definitely left leg – left arm (LA/LL) reversal. Lead I is II and II is I and III is upside down as expected.

Overall – looks like pericarditis to me. ST depression in aVR is most specific for this. Reconstructing the ECG there is significant St elevation in inferior leads.

I would echo just to check inferior wall moving as ST elevation greatest there, and no effusion (lateral complexes look small).

Mark Perrin MD

 Limb Lead Reversal….Reversed

Reversal by Ameritous Professor Tor Ercleve

• Left Arm and Left Leg Lead reversal…
• Lead I is actually lead II → Lead II is actually lead I and Lead III is inverted
• aVR is normal; AVL is actually aVF and aVF is actually aVL

FACEM VAQ Exam 2011.2 – Question 8

• The overall pass rate for this question was 58/81 (71.6%)
• Pass Criteria (in red)
  
  • Description: Painful oral mucosal lesions characterised by haemorrhagic blistering and ulceration. Symmetrical  xtensor target lesions of arms with some facial involvement.
  • Diagnosis:  Erythema Multiforme Major on basis of skin plus mucosal lesions affecting at least one site, Stevens Johnson Syndrome less likely– more widespread, multiple mucosal involvement expected
  • Aetiology:  Idiopathic (50%), infections (herpes, mycoplasma), drugs (antibiotics, anticonvulsants, NSAIDS), malignancy, immunological diseases
  • Differential Diagnoses: Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis – extensive skin loss and abnormal vitals. Other conditions – disseminated herpes infection, pemphigus, drug reactions
• Features of unsuccessful answers
  • Failure to mention “target’ lesions on upper limbs or to note the combination of skin and mucosal lesions
  • Failure to recognise diagnosis as EM major or Stevens Johnson Syndrome
  • Failure to mention infections and drugs as possible causes

FACEM VAQ Exam 2011.2 – Question 7

• The overall pass rate for this question was 61/81 (75.3%)
• Pass Criteria
  • Rate 54bpm; regular rhythm.
  • Wide complexes ~120msec; non-specific IVCD
  • No apparent P-waves (?present in alternate T-waves)
  • Inferior Q–waves
  • Widespread ST/T changes
  • Comment on clinical context – likely accelerated idio-ventricular rhythm (AIVR) secondary to reperfusion and widely considered benign, though some recent evidence that it may indicate increased chance of further intervention such as PCI.
• Features of unsuccessful answers
  • Failure to recognise that there were no P waves before each QRS
  • Saying that the rhythm was irregular or that there was AV dissociation
  • Failure to mention the (obvious)—ST elevation inferior changes consistent with the provided history of recent inferior MI
  • Failure to mention the associated ST depression / T wave inversion consistent with reciprocal changes and /or posterior extension
  • Giving clinical information rather than answering the question asked
  • Failure to recognise that this is a not uncommon and often benign rhythm following reperfusion
  • No single issue above was considered a fail criteria in itself- failed candidates did not describe a number of the required key criteria and included features above.

FACEM VAQ Exam 2011.2 – Question 6

• The overall pass rate for this question was 46/82 (56.1%)
• Pass Criteria
  • Part A: Correct interpretation of results, with a brief discussion and differential diagnosis
  • Part B: A reasonable range of investigations and reasons for these incl PCR, bloods, radiolog
• Features of unsuccessful answers
  • Candidates who failed tended not to actually answer the question, and particularly did not allocate enough time and effort to the part b even though the mark split was 50/50
  • Many candidates just stated the abnormal results without actually interpreting them
  • Most candidates answered the question at only a very basic level, and there was little in the way of consultant level discussion or interpretation

FACEM VAQ Exam 2011.2 – Question 5

• The overall pass rate for this question was 48/81 (59.3%)
• Pass Criteria
  • Accurate description of complex fracture dislocation of wrist.
  • Including dislocated carpal bones and dislocated lunate
  • Must mention neurovascular risk
  • Good answers also included- additional comments regarding complications, prognosis
• Features of unsuccessful answers
  • No mention of neurovascular status
  • Inaccurate description of injury
  • Failure to recognise lunate
  • No mention of open injury; choosing urgent reduction in ED (without rationale)

FACEM VAQ Exam 2011.2 – Question 4

• The overall pass rate for this question was 31/81 (38.3%)
• Pass Criteria
  
• ECG Description to Include
  
  • SR, regular, rate 85 to 90 /min, left axis.
  • P waves normal with short PR ≤ 0.12, QRS ≥ 0.12 borderline widened, RSR V1and 2 – RBBB pattern
  • QTc normal ( 0.32 QT), Delta wave V2
  • ST depression V2 to V5 and T wave inversion inferior II, III, AVF and V1 to V5
  • Interpretation include sinus tachycardia short PR interval left axis RBBB pattern inferolateral ST,T changes presence delta waves
  • Re entrant arrhythmia secondary to aberrant pathway: WPW evidence by short PR, RBBB and delta wave – other most likely, DDx: Myocardial Ischaemia, Right heart strain e.g. PE
• Features of unsuccessful answers
  • In this answer candidates failed mostly due to an inadequate description of the ECG
  • Incorrect assumptions e.g. LBBB
  • Incorrect description of ST elevation
  • Incorrect axis
  • No mention or inadequate description of ST-T changes, rhythm, WPW
  • Incorrect diagnosis of STEMI and no mention possible ischaemia in differential diagnosis

FACEM VAQ Exam 2011.2 – Question 3

• The overall pass rate for this question was 67/81 (82.7%)

Question A

• Pass Criteria
  • Interpretation with good diff and important management issues.
  • Describe seat belt pattern and potential consequences e.g. Internal injuries/particular patterns associated with this injury
• Features of unsuccessful answers
  • No Interpretation/minimal synthesis
  • No differential or very poor differential

Question B

• Pass Criteria
  • Understands utility for recognising abdominal bleeding + pneumothorax
  • Some discussion of US limitations/including details not normally seen/guidance for management and poor at ruling out major non-bleeding injuries
• Features of unsuccessful answers
  • Pure list of views and no understudy of limitations of US both technically or for clinical management

FACEM VAQ Exam 2011.2 – Question 2

• The overall pass rate for this question was 30/81 (37.1%)
• Pass Criteria
  • Severe acidaemia
  • Mixed metabolic acidosis, with features of normal AG / hyperchloraemic acidosis predominant) and slightly raised AG
  • Appropriate respiratory compensation
  • Hypernatraemia & hypokalaemia with adequate interpretation
  • Consistent with severe dehydration / hypovolaemia / GI loss of bicarbonate and hypoperfusion
• Features of unsuccessful answers
  • Failure to appreciate predominant non-anion gap metabolic acidosis
  • Description of abnormal parameters not followed by adequate interpretation
  • Failure to recognize that blood was venous (not arterial), and therefore parameters such as A- a gradient are unreliable
  • Inability to integrate the various information when interpreting
  • Answers included management, which is not required

FACEM VAQ Exam 2011.2 – Question 1

• The overall pass rate for this question was 38/81 (46.9%)
• Pass Criteria
  • Identifies hyphaema
  • Offers a reassuring explanation to the mother quantifying the risk of permanent visual loss as small ( in laymans terms).
• Features of unsuccessful answers
  
  • Long lists of potential complications of blunt eye trauma without any effort to explain in a reassuring layman’s fashion that such complications are unusual.
  • Failure to identify the hyphaema or the most common complications (re bleed and raised IOP)